RESEARCH STUDY 3.3: Anton and his friends are discussing a study he read about in his developmental psychology class. In the study, the researcher made the claim that most middle school students who are bullied have low self-esteem. Clarissa questions the study, saying, “I am not sure that I am convinced. I am not sure you can really say for sure that being bullied leads to low self-esteem because they didn’t measure being bullied before they measured self-esteem.” Clarissa is concerned that the researcher

Question

BlackTom AI · Accepted Answer

The scenario centers on whether the study can support a claim about bullying leading to low self-esteem given the order in which variables were measured.
Option A: 'concluded there was a relationship, but there really isn’t one.' This statement would be about a falsely inferred relationship. The concern raised in the prompt is not about a false positive correlation, but about whether the temporal sequence was established, so this option misidentifies the core issue.
Option B: 'concluded there was not a relationship, but there really is one.' This would indicate a false negative, where the study missed a real association. Again, the student’s concern is about measurement timing, not about failing to detect an existing link, so this is not addressing temporal precedence.
Option C: 'failed to consider a third variable.' This points to confounding, where another variable explains the association. While a third variable could be a concern in some designs, the specific worry here is about the order in which bullying and self-esteem were measured, not about identifying confounds, so this option does not capture the temporal issue.
Option D: 'failed to establish temporal precedence.' This directly targets the timing of measurements: if bullying was not measured before self-esteem, the study cannot claim that bullying leads to low self-esteem. Without establishing that the predictor precedes the outcome in time, causality cannot be inferred, making this the correct concern in the scenario.

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